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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Introduction</span><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Inequalities in science are a reality that have not only not improved in recent years but have in fact worsened&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0005"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Data on gender inequalities reveal disproportionate differences between men and women in terms of involvement and leadership positions in clinical research&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#8211;6</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This gender gap is even more striking given that a higher proportion of women obtain university and doctoral degrees in research fields&#46; Published data reveal that women account for almost half of postdoctoral fellows in biomedical sciences but only 19&#37; of senior investigators&#46; Furthermore&#44; women lead fewer research projects&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0035"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Despite the growing number of women enrolled in health-related university degrees&#44; there is also gender inequality in this area&#46; Although the number of female graduates in healthcare fields is higher&#44; more men than women earn doctoral degrees&#59; this disproportion is even greater in regard to the number of female professors&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0020"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;9</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The main obstacle when studying women in science is a lack of gender-disaggregated data and statistics that are systematically collected and released&#46; On the other hand&#44; not all figures collected are published and those that are published are not always reported in a direct manner that would facilitate their study&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In light of this lack of data&#44; this work aims to assess inequalities between male and female doctors&#8217; involvement in clinical research in the hospital setting and to provide new gender-disaggregated data on this issue&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Objetives</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work aims to analyze the extent to which female doctors &#40;FD&#41; working in hospitals are involved in clinical research leadership and changes in this trend over two decades&#46;</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work also evaluates gender differences in leadership according to study type&#44; classified as either clinical trials &#40;CT&#41; or non-interventional research studies &#40;NIR&#41;&#44; as well as differences in the type of financial support for research&#58; either private&#44; public&#44; or unfunded&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Material and methods</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work is a retrospective observational study of the gender distribution in the leadership of clinical research studies conducted in a tertiary hospital &#40;1300 beds&#41; from 2001 to 2020&#46; The hospital analyzed is associated with one of the leading clinical health research institutions in Spain&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Given that all clinical studies conducted at the hospital were approved by the same hospital research ethics committee &#40;REC&#41;&#44; its database was used to search for all principal investigators &#40;PI&#41; over the study period and classify them by gender&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Furthermore&#44; the hospital&#8217;s Human Resources Department&#8217;s records were used as a reference in order to determine the proportion of FD and male doctors &#40;MD&#41; who work in the hospital and who led clinical research studies&#46; This database also allowed for analyzing changes in the proportion of MD and FD working in the hospital over the 20 year study period and changes in the proportion of men and women occupying the highest positions in clinical departments&#46; Residents were not included in the study&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To evaluate the effect of time on the aggregated data by gender&#44; a linear regression model was calculated for each gender&#46; Adjustments to the data were evaluated using the coefficient of determination &#40;R<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#41; and were analyzed using Microsoft Office 2003&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As this study did not involve patients&#44; REC approval was not required for its conduct&#46;</p><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Statistical analysis</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For the data analysis&#44; a database was designed that reflected the content of the data collection notebook such that the data entry table had intervals or possible values&#44; as well as the different coherence rules between variables&#46; Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical measures &#40;absolute and relative frequencies&#41; of the differences in the number of FD and MD&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Results</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">From 2001 to 2020&#44; the REC approved 8466 clinical studies&#44; of which 52&#37; &#40;4408&#47;8466&#41; were CT and the rest were NIR&#46; FD were the PI in 3360 of the 8466 studies &#40;39&#46;7&#37;&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a> shows the distribution of FD and MD in terms of doctors who work at the hospital&#44; doctors who are department heads&#44; and doctors involved in clinical research as a PI during the study period&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There has been an increase in the total number of research studies conducted at the center over the study period&#46; In addition&#44; an upward trend in the number of projects led by women has also been observed&#46; However&#44; the number of FD working in the hospital has also increased significantly over the same time period&#44; with the number of FD surpassing the number of MD in 2011&#46; At the end of the study period&#44; FD accounted for 59&#46;5&#37; &#40;736 FD vs 500 MD&#41; of all doctors on staff&#46; Given the greater proportion of FD&#44; the gender gap persists when analyzing female involvement in clinical research &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In regard to the type of research study&#8212;either CT or NIR&#8212;women led 1391&#47;4408 &#40;31&#46;5&#37;&#41; of CT and 1969&#47;4058 &#40;48&#46;5&#37;&#41; of NIR&#46; Important differences between FD and MD were found when analyzing the data by study type&#58; the PIs of CT were mostly MD whereas no important gender differences were observed in the leadership of NIR &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The differences between male and female involvement in clinical research were also analyzed in economic terms&#46; This work found different trends according to funding sources&#46; When grants came from private organizations &#40;mostly pharmaceutical companies for CT or scientific societies&#41;&#44; the gap between female and male PIs was greater and markedly unfavorable for FD&#46; However&#44; when the funding came from public institutions or the research did not receive financial support&#44; the gap was narrower &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Changes in the total number of FD and MD&#44; the number of FD and MD who occupied the top positions in departments &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>&#41;&#44; and the proportion who served as PIs were also analyzed&#46; An upward trend in the proportion of FD leading research projects was found&#44; although the percentage was still very low compared to MD&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Discussion</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The results of our study provide new data on the underrepresentation of FD in leadership positions in clinical research&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Our results show an increase in the absolute number of FD who have served as PIs of clinical research in our center over the study period&#46; However&#44; this has occurred in parallel with an increase in the number of MD who have served as PIs&#44; even though there are more MD than FD&#59; thus&#44; the gender gap that existed at the start of the study has been maintained over time&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Other authors have also found evidence of gender disparities in this field&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;10</span></a> Caprile et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> identified different factors that may contribute to this discrimination&#44; including pre-established stereotypes or less competitive attitudes among women&#46; Other previously published research on this topic has also pointed to the influence of sexist stereotypes and gender biases to explain discrimination in scientific and academic settings in the field of health&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;13</span></a></p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Despite the commitment of important institutions&#44; such as the European Commission&#44; to promote women&#8217;s scientific careers&#44; the reality is that inequality in clinical research exists and has remained constant over the years&#46; Moreover&#44; available data show a &#8220;glass ceiling&#8221; and a shortage of FD in leadership positions in clinical research&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;4&#44;8</span></a></p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The results of this study are even more disappointing when considering the high proportion of women who graduate from universities with health sciences degrees&#46; In Spain&#44; the percentage of women in these programs has increased by an average of 2&#46;5 points over the last five years and today&#44; 70&#37; of health sciences graduates are women&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a></p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Similarly&#44; horizontal gender imbalances persist in positions of scientific renown and women are underrepresented in scientific institutions&#44; both in decision-making positions and as contract researchers&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> A possible cause of these imbalances is the so-called &#8220;rush hour&#8221; of a professional career&#44; that is&#44; the time of life when family demands are greater&#44; which can lead to women to prioritize these family demands over career progression more so than men&#59; this situation can become perpetuated over time&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15&#8211;17</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work also evaluated gender differences in clinical research in economic terms&#46; It is known that women are vastly underrepresented in top income groups and a substantial pay gap remains between men and women&#46; By disaggregating the data by type of funding&#44; a substantial gender difference was found&#46;</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">According to the data&#44; the number of MD who serve as PIs of research studies that receive private financial support&#8212;projects for which the PI might receive additional remuneration for their leadership&#8212;increased over the study period&#46; On the other hand&#44; NIR&#44; which usually receive no funding and are not sponsored by private entities&#44; have been led equally by MD and FD&#46; Once again&#44; in view of these data&#44; women are economically disadvantaged by this situation&#46;</p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In line with these findings&#44; previously published data have shown that women lead funded projects to a much lesser extent than men&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#8211;23</span></a> Denvy et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> found that only one out of every ten published studies resulting from CT had a female investigator in the first or senior authorship position&#46; The prestigious journal <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nature</span> has also analyzed this gender gap in science&#44; finding that female scientists are paid less and that institutions grant fewer projects to women despite them holding equal qualifications&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> The potential role of pharmaceutical companies in promoting gender equality in the leadership of CT merits mention&#44; since they are responsible for selecting the PIs at each center&#46;</p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Prior research works have suggested that gender parity in clinical research teams may produce higher quality research&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> Moreover&#44; greater visibility of FD in CT leadership positions could encourage the recruitment of female participants and attract more female investigators to these studies&#46; Although this study did not assess causality&#44; unconscious biases may lead to gender discrimination in the selecting CT leadership&#46; The interplay of all these circumstances creates a vicious cycle&#44; with the exclusion of women leading to further exclusion&#44; a lack of recognition&#44; and fewer promotions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;4&#44;26</span></a></p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In contrast to the trends observed with privately funded projects&#44; this study noted less of a gender difference when the research was funded by public institutions&#46; Indeed&#44; over the last 20 years&#44; the percentage of FD and MD in these studies has been similar&#46;</p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work also analyzed the gender ratios of the doctors working in the hospital year by year&#46; From 2001 to 2010&#44; the proportion of men was higher than that of women&#46; Then&#44; from 2010 to 2020&#44; the trend reversed significantly&#46; However&#44; when analyzing gender trends in doctors who occupy highest positions in clinical departments&#44; this shift in favor of FD was not found&#44; but rather there was a gender gap&#46;</p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">An analysis of the data revealed a &#8220;glass ceiling&#8221; in the top positions&#58; a significant difference according to sex was detected among department heads&#46; This underrepresentation of women in positions of power in hospitals is also observed in institutions such as scientific societies and public research institutions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;27</span></a></p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In relative terms&#44; the data showed that despite the higher proportion of FD in our center&#44; more MD lead clinical research&#46; In our center&#44; there is more clinical research overall&#44; as evidenced by the greater number of studies conducted over the last 20 years&#44; yet despite this&#44; the gender gap has remained constant&#46;</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This study has the potential limitations inherent to a descriptive analysis&#46; The results may be biased due to unmeasured confounding factors that may influence the lesser involvement of women in research and funded projects&#46; It must also be considered that the PI of CTs and funded projects is usually the department head and&#44; as has been shown herein&#44; most department heads over the 20 year study period have been men&#46; This has likely influenced in the gender differences observed in the results&#46; Indeed&#44; it will likely take more than ten years for the gender distribution of hospital staff &#40;with more FD in this case&#41; to match the gender distribution in the assignment of PIs&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Conclusions</span><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">An upward trend has been observed in the number of FD leading clinical research over the last two decades&#58; FD now lead around 50&#37; of all research works conducted at our center&#46; However&#44; a gender gap persists because for the last ten years&#44; more FD than MD have worked at our hospital&#46; The gender gap is particularly large when specifically analyzing studies which received private financial support&#46;</p><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Further review will be needed in a few years to confirm whether the change in the gender balance among hospital staff has impacted the selection of FD as PI&#46;</p><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This study demonstrates that despite progress in reducing gender inequalities&#44; there is still a long way to go in the field of clinical research&#46; More data and more studies on this issue will allow for delving into the problem to detect possible causes and identify barriers&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On the other hand&#44; it is hoped that this evidence of these differences will spur and strengthen actions and changes at the institutional and cultural level in order to promote gender equality in clinical research&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Funding</span><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This research study has not received any specific grants from agencies in the public&#44; commercial&#44; or non-profit sectors&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Background and objective</span><p id="spar0075" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Available data support differences by gender in the leadership of clinical investigations &#40;CI&#41;&#46; This study analyzes to what extent women lead these investigations&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Materials and methods</span><p id="spar0080" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Observational-retrospective study in a tertiary university hospital associated with one of the most important health research institutes in Spain&#46; We analyzed the principal investigators &#40;PI&#41; by gender from 2001 to 2020&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Main outcome</span>&#58; proportion of CI led by female doctors &#40;FD&#41; during the study period&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Secondary outcomes</span>&#58; differences in PI by gender according to the type of study&#58; clinical trials &#40;CT&#41; or non-interventional-researches &#40;NIR&#41; and according to type of funding&#46; Data sources&#58; Research Ethics Committee &#40;REC&#41; and Human Resources Department registries&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Results</span><p id="spar0085" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">During the study&#44; the REC approved 8466 protocols&#44; 52&#37; &#40;4408&#47;8466&#41; were EC&#44; the rest were NIR&#46; Women led 39&#46;7&#37; &#40;3360&#47;8466&#41; of the total&#46; The gender gap was observed mainly in EC&#58; FD were IP of 31&#46;5&#37; of them &#40;1391&#47;4408&#41; and 48&#46;5&#37; &#40;1969&#47;4058&#41; of NIR&#46; This despite the increasing trend in the number of FD staff&#46; By type of funding&#44; when the studies were supported by private sector there was a wider gap markedly unfavorable for women&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Conclusions</span><p id="spar0090" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Our results show that there is underrepresentation of women in research leadership&#44; mainly those with private financing&#46; This study reinforces the idea that there is still a long way to go in this field&#46; More studies are necessary to identify the existing differences that allow the implementation of actions at the institutional and cultural level that promote gender equality in the field of clinical research&#46;</p></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Antecedentes y objetivo</span><p id="spar0095" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los datos disponibles avalan las diferencias por g&#233;nero en el liderazgo de las investigaciones cl&#237;nicas &#40;IC&#41;&#46; Este estudio analiza en qu&#233; medida las mujeres lideran estas investigaciones&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Materiales y m&#233;todos</span><p id="spar0100" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Estudio observacional retrospectivo en un hospital universitario terciario asociado a uno de los institutos de investigaci&#243;n sanitaria m&#225;s importantes de Espa&#241;a&#46; Analizamos los investigadores principales &#40;IP&#41; por g&#233;nero &#40;2001&#8211;2020&#41;&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Variable principal</span>&#58; proporci&#243;n de IC lideradas por mujeres durante el per&#237;odo de estudio&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Variables secundarias</span>&#58; diferencias de IP por g&#233;nero seg&#250;n el tipo de estudio&#58; ensayos cl&#237;nicos &#40;EC&#41; o estudios de no-intervenci&#243;n &#40;ENI&#41; y seg&#250;n la financiaci&#243;n&#46; Fuentes de datos&#58; registros del Comit&#233; de &#201;tica en Investigaci&#243;n con medicamentos &#40;CEIm&#41; y del Departamento de Recursos Humanos&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Resultados</span><p id="spar0105" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Durante el estudio&#44; el CEIm aprob&#243; 8&#46;466 protocolos&#59; el 52&#37; &#40;4&#46;408&#47;8&#46;466&#41; fueron EC y el resto&#44; ENI&#46; Las mujeres lideraron un 39&#44;7&#37; &#40;3&#46;360&#47;8&#46;466&#41; del total&#46; La brecha de g&#233;nero se observ&#243; principalmente en EC&#58; las mujeres fueron IP de un 31&#44;5&#37; de ellos &#40;1&#46;391&#47;4&#46;408&#41; y de un 48&#44;5&#37; &#40;1&#46;969&#47;4&#46;058&#41; de los ENI&#46; Ello a pesar de la tendencia creciente del n&#250;mero de facultativas&#46; Los estudios de financiaci&#243;n privada fueron m&#225;s com&#250;nmente liderados por hombres&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Conclusiones</span><p id="spar0110" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Nuestros resultados demuestran que existe una infrarrepresentaci&#243;n de las mujeres en puestos de liderazgo en la investigaci&#243;n&#44; principalmente en aquellos con financiaci&#243;n privada&#46; Este estudio refuerza la idea de que todav&#237;a queda un largo camino por recorrer en este campo&#46; Se necesitan m&#225;s estudios para la identificaci&#243;n de diferencias existentes que permitan implantar cambios a nivel institucional y cultural que promuevan la igualdad de g&#233;nero en el &#225;mbito de la investigaci&#243;n cl&#237;nica&#46;</p></span>"
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            "titulo" => "Materiales y m&#233;todos"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Changes in relative proportions by gender of principal investigators&#46;</p> <p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Y axis&#58; ratio by gender &#40;&#37; of principal investigators&#47;total number of staff doctors by gender&#44; i&#46;e&#46; &#37; of female principal investigators&#47;female doctors and &#37; male principal investigators&#47;male doctors&#41;&#46;</p> <p id="spar0015" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">X axis&#58; year&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0020" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Evolution of gender in clinical research leadership by type of investigation&#46;</p> <p id="spar0025" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Y axis&#58; ratio by gender &#40;&#37; of principal investigators&#47;total number of staff doctors by gender&#44; i&#46;e&#46; &#37; of female principal investigators&#47;female doctors and &#37; male principal investigators&#47;male doctors&#41;&#46;</p> <p id="spar0030" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">X axis&#58; year&#46;</p>"
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        "figura" => array:1 [
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Differences in gender in research leadership according to funding source&#46; &#40;a&#41; Funded by Industry vs Foundations &#38; Scientific Societies&#46; &#40;b&#41; Unfunded vs Public Funding&#46;</p> <p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Y axis&#58; ratio by gender &#40;&#37; of principal investigators&#47;total number of staff doctors by gender&#44; i&#46;e&#46; &#37; of female principal investigators&#47;female doctors and &#37; of male principal investigators&#47;male doctors&#41;&#46;</p> <p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">X axis&#58; year&#46;</p>"
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      3 => array:8 [
        "identificador" => "fig0020"
        "etiqueta" => "Figure 4"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "figura" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
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        "detalles" => array:1 [
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Evolution in the total number of female and male staff doctors and females and males in the highest professional positions&#46;</p> <p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Y axis&#58; ratio by gender &#40;4&#46;a&#41; &#37; of staff doctors by gender&#44; &#40;4&#46;b&#41; &#37; of department heads by gender&#46;</p> <p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">X axis&#58; year&#46;</p>"
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          "leyenda" => "<p id="spar0070" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">MS&#58; male staff&#44; FS&#58; female staff&#44; TS&#58; total staff&#44; MH&#58; male department heads&#44; FH&#58; female department heads&#44; TH&#58; total department heads&#44; MPI&#58; male principal investigators&#44; FPI&#58; female principal investigators&#44; TPI&#58; total principal investigators&#46;</p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col">&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="3" align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Staff doctor</th><th class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="3" align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Department head</th><th class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="3" align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Principal investigator &#40;PI&#41;</th><th class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&#37; of PI to total PI by gender</th><th class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " colspan="2" align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&#37; of PI to total staff by gender</th></tr><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Year&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">MS&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FS&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">TS&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">MH&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FH&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">TH&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">MPI&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FPI&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">TPI&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">MPI&#47;TPI&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-head\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FPI&#47;TPI&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">MPI&#47;MS&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FPI&#47;FS&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">2001&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">75&#46;0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">25&#46;0&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">18&#46;4&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">10&#46;1&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">968&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">173&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">63&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0065" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Distribution of the staff by gender over the study period &#40;2001&#8211;2020&#41;&#46;</p>"
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Original article
Women’s leadership in clinical research: A retrospective observational study over two decades in Spain
Liderazgo de la mujer en la investigación clínica: estudio observacional retrospectivo durante dos décadas en España
E. Villamañána,b,c,d,
Corresponding author
evillabueno@telefonica.net

Corresponding author.
, E. Fernández de Uzquianoa,b, E. Garcíaa,b, C. Sobrinob,d, A. del Pozoe, C. Carpiob,c,f, A. Herrerob,d, E. Armadab,g, R. Álvarez-Salab,c,f,h, A. Castroa,b,g
a Comité Ético de Investigación con medicamentos (CEIm), Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
b Instituto de Investigación, Hospital Universitario La Paz (IdiPAZ), Madrid, Spain
c Departamento de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
d Servicio de Farmacia, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
e Departamento de Recursos Humanos, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
f Servicio de Neumología, Hospital Universitario La Paz (IdiPAZ), Madrid, Spain
g Servicio de Cardiología, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
h Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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this work aims to assess inequalities between male and female doctors&#8217; involvement in clinical research in the hospital setting and to provide new gender-disaggregated data on this issue&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Objetives</span><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work aims to analyze the extent to which female doctors &#40;FD&#41; working in hospitals are involved in clinical research leadership and changes in this trend over two decades&#46;</p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work also evaluates gender differences in leadership according to study type&#44; classified as either clinical trials &#40;CT&#41; or non-interventional research studies &#40;NIR&#41;&#44; as well as differences in the type of financial support for research&#58; either private&#44; public&#44; or unfunded&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">Material and methods</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work is a retrospective observational study of the gender distribution in the leadership of clinical research studies conducted in a tertiary hospital &#40;1300 beds&#41; from 2001 to 2020&#46; The hospital analyzed is associated with one of the leading clinical health research institutions in Spain&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Given that all clinical studies conducted at the hospital were approved by the same hospital research ethics committee &#40;REC&#41;&#44; its database was used to search for all principal investigators &#40;PI&#41; over the study period and classify them by gender&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Furthermore&#44; the hospital&#8217;s Human Resources Department&#8217;s records were used as a reference in order to determine the proportion of FD and male doctors &#40;MD&#41; who work in the hospital and who led clinical research studies&#46; This database also allowed for analyzing changes in the proportion of MD and FD working in the hospital over the 20 year study period and changes in the proportion of men and women occupying the highest positions in clinical departments&#46; Residents were not included in the study&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">To evaluate the effect of time on the aggregated data by gender&#44; a linear regression model was calculated for each gender&#46; Adjustments to the data were evaluated using the coefficient of determination &#40;R<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#41; and were analyzed using Microsoft Office 2003&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As this study did not involve patients&#44; REC approval was not required for its conduct&#46;</p><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Statistical analysis</span><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">For the data analysis&#44; a database was designed that reflected the content of the data collection notebook such that the data entry table had intervals or possible values&#44; as well as the different coherence rules between variables&#46; Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical measures &#40;absolute and relative frequencies&#41; of the differences in the number of FD and MD&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Results</span><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">From 2001 to 2020&#44; the REC approved 8466 clinical studies&#44; of which 52&#37; &#40;4408&#47;8466&#41; were CT and the rest were NIR&#46; FD were the PI in 3360 of the 8466 studies &#40;39&#46;7&#37;&#41;&#46;</p><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall"><a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a> shows the distribution of FD and MD in terms of doctors who work at the hospital&#44; doctors who are department heads&#44; and doctors involved in clinical research as a PI during the study period&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There has been an increase in the total number of research studies conducted at the center over the study period&#46; In addition&#44; an upward trend in the number of projects led by women has also been observed&#46; However&#44; the number of FD working in the hospital has also increased significantly over the same time period&#44; with the number of FD surpassing the number of MD in 2011&#46; At the end of the study period&#44; FD accounted for 59&#46;5&#37; &#40;736 FD vs 500 MD&#41; of all doctors on staff&#46; Given the greater proportion of FD&#44; the gender gap persists when analyzing female involvement in clinical research &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0005">Fig&#46; 1</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0005"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In regard to the type of research study&#8212;either CT or NIR&#8212;women led 1391&#47;4408 &#40;31&#46;5&#37;&#41; of CT and 1969&#47;4058 &#40;48&#46;5&#37;&#41; of NIR&#46; Important differences between FD and MD were found when analyzing the data by study type&#58; the PIs of CT were mostly MD whereas no important gender differences were observed in the leadership of NIR &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0010">Fig&#46; 2</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0010"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The differences between male and female involvement in clinical research were also analyzed in economic terms&#46; This work found different trends according to funding sources&#46; When grants came from private organizations &#40;mostly pharmaceutical companies for CT or scientific societies&#41;&#44; the gap between female and male PIs was greater and markedly unfavorable for FD&#46; However&#44; when the funding came from public institutions or the research did not receive financial support&#44; the gap was narrower &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0015">Fig&#46; 3</a>&#41;&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0015"></elsevierMultimedia><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Changes in the total number of FD and MD&#44; the number of FD and MD who occupied the top positions in departments &#40;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#fig0020">Fig&#46; 4</a>&#41;&#44; and the proportion who served as PIs were also analyzed&#46; An upward trend in the proportion of FD leading research projects was found&#44; although the percentage was still very low compared to MD&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="fig0020"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Discussion</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The results of our study provide new data on the underrepresentation of FD in leadership positions in clinical research&#46;</p><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Our results show an increase in the absolute number of FD who have served as PIs of clinical research in our center over the study period&#46; However&#44; this has occurred in parallel with an increase in the number of MD who have served as PIs&#44; even though there are more MD than FD&#59; thus&#44; the gender gap that existed at the start of the study has been maintained over time&#46;</p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Other authors have also found evidence of gender disparities in this field&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;10</span></a> Caprile et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> identified different factors that may contribute to this discrimination&#44; including pre-established stereotypes or less competitive attitudes among women&#46; Other previously published research on this topic has also pointed to the influence of sexist stereotypes and gender biases to explain discrimination in scientific and academic settings in the field of health&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">12&#44;13</span></a></p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Despite the commitment of important institutions&#44; such as the European Commission&#44; to promote women&#8217;s scientific careers&#44; the reality is that inequality in clinical research exists and has remained constant over the years&#46; Moreover&#44; available data show a &#8220;glass ceiling&#8221; and a shortage of FD in leadership positions in clinical research&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;4&#44;8</span></a></p><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The results of this study are even more disappointing when considering the high proportion of women who graduate from universities with health sciences degrees&#46; In Spain&#44; the percentage of women in these programs has increased by an average of 2&#46;5 points over the last five years and today&#44; 70&#37; of health sciences graduates are women&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span></a></p><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Similarly&#44; horizontal gender imbalances persist in positions of scientific renown and women are underrepresented in scientific institutions&#44; both in decision-making positions and as contract researchers&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> A possible cause of these imbalances is the so-called &#8220;rush hour&#8221; of a professional career&#44; that is&#44; the time of life when family demands are greater&#44; which can lead to women to prioritize these family demands over career progression more so than men&#59; this situation can become perpetuated over time&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15&#8211;17</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work also evaluated gender differences in clinical research in economic terms&#46; It is known that women are vastly underrepresented in top income groups and a substantial pay gap remains between men and women&#46; By disaggregating the data by type of funding&#44; a substantial gender difference was found&#46;</p><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">According to the data&#44; the number of MD who serve as PIs of research studies that receive private financial support&#8212;projects for which the PI might receive additional remuneration for their leadership&#8212;increased over the study period&#46; On the other hand&#44; NIR&#44; which usually receive no funding and are not sponsored by private entities&#44; have been led equally by MD and FD&#46; Once again&#44; in view of these data&#44; women are economically disadvantaged by this situation&#46;</p><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In line with these findings&#44; previously published data have shown that women lead funded projects to a much lesser extent than men&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#8211;23</span></a> Denvy et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0120"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></a> found that only one out of every ten published studies resulting from CT had a female investigator in the first or senior authorship position&#46; The prestigious journal <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Nature</span> has also analyzed this gender gap in science&#44; finding that female scientists are paid less and that institutions grant fewer projects to women despite them holding equal qualifications&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> The potential role of pharmaceutical companies in promoting gender equality in the leadership of CT merits mention&#44; since they are responsible for selecting the PIs at each center&#46;</p><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Prior research works have suggested that gender parity in clinical research teams may produce higher quality research&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0125"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span></a> Moreover&#44; greater visibility of FD in CT leadership positions could encourage the recruitment of female participants and attract more female investigators to these studies&#46; Although this study did not assess causality&#44; unconscious biases may lead to gender discrimination in the selecting CT leadership&#46; The interplay of all these circumstances creates a vicious cycle&#44; with the exclusion of women leading to further exclusion&#44; a lack of recognition&#44; and fewer promotions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;4&#44;26</span></a></p><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In contrast to the trends observed with privately funded projects&#44; this study noted less of a gender difference when the research was funded by public institutions&#46; Indeed&#44; over the last 20 years&#44; the percentage of FD and MD in these studies has been similar&#46;</p><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This work also analyzed the gender ratios of the doctors working in the hospital year by year&#46; From 2001 to 2010&#44; the proportion of men was higher than that of women&#46; Then&#44; from 2010 to 2020&#44; the trend reversed significantly&#46; However&#44; when analyzing gender trends in doctors who occupy highest positions in clinical departments&#44; this shift in favor of FD was not found&#44; but rather there was a gender gap&#46;</p><p id="par0160" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">An analysis of the data revealed a &#8220;glass ceiling&#8221; in the top positions&#58; a significant difference according to sex was detected among department heads&#46; This underrepresentation of women in positions of power in hospitals is also observed in institutions such as scientific societies and public research institutions&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0010"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;27</span></a></p><p id="par0165" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In relative terms&#44; the data showed that despite the higher proportion of FD in our center&#44; more MD lead clinical research&#46; In our center&#44; there is more clinical research overall&#44; as evidenced by the greater number of studies conducted over the last 20 years&#44; yet despite this&#44; the gender gap has remained constant&#46;</p><p id="par0170" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This study has the potential limitations inherent to a descriptive analysis&#46; The results may be biased due to unmeasured confounding factors that may influence the lesser involvement of women in research and funded projects&#46; It must also be considered that the PI of CTs and funded projects is usually the department head and&#44; as has been shown herein&#44; most department heads over the 20 year study period have been men&#46; This has likely influenced in the gender differences observed in the results&#46; Indeed&#44; it will likely take more than ten years for the gender distribution of hospital staff &#40;with more FD in this case&#41; to match the gender distribution in the assignment of PIs&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Conclusions</span><p id="par0175" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">An upward trend has been observed in the number of FD leading clinical research over the last two decades&#58; FD now lead around 50&#37; of all research works conducted at our center&#46; However&#44; a gender gap persists because for the last ten years&#44; more FD than MD have worked at our hospital&#46; The gender gap is particularly large when specifically analyzing studies which received private financial support&#46;</p><p id="par0180" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Further review will be needed in a few years to confirm whether the change in the gender balance among hospital staff has impacted the selection of FD as PI&#46;</p><p id="par0185" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This study demonstrates that despite progress in reducing gender inequalities&#44; there is still a long way to go in the field of clinical research&#46; More data and more studies on this issue will allow for delving into the problem to detect possible causes and identify barriers&#46;</p><p id="par0190" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">On the other hand&#44; it is hoped that this evidence of these differences will spur and strengthen actions and changes at the institutional and cultural level in order to promote gender equality in clinical research&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Funding</span><p id="par0195" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">This research study has not received any specific grants from agencies in the public&#44; commercial&#44; or non-profit sectors&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0200" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare no conflicts of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Background and objective</span><p id="spar0075" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Available data support differences by gender in the leadership of clinical investigations &#40;CI&#41;&#46; This study analyzes to what extent women lead these investigations&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0015">Materials and methods</span><p id="spar0080" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Observational-retrospective study in a tertiary university hospital associated with one of the most important health research institutes in Spain&#46; We analyzed the principal investigators &#40;PI&#41; by gender from 2001 to 2020&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Main outcome</span>&#58; proportion of CI led by female doctors &#40;FD&#41; during the study period&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Secondary outcomes</span>&#58; differences in PI by gender according to the type of study&#58; clinical trials &#40;CT&#41; or non-interventional-researches &#40;NIR&#41; and according to type of funding&#46; Data sources&#58; Research Ethics Committee &#40;REC&#41; and Human Resources Department registries&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0020">Results</span><p id="spar0085" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">During the study&#44; the REC approved 8466 protocols&#44; 52&#37; &#40;4408&#47;8466&#41; were EC&#44; the rest were NIR&#46; Women led 39&#46;7&#37; &#40;3360&#47;8466&#41; of the total&#46; The gender gap was observed mainly in EC&#58; FD were IP of 31&#46;5&#37; of them &#40;1391&#47;4408&#41; and 48&#46;5&#37; &#40;1969&#47;4058&#41; of NIR&#46; This despite the increasing trend in the number of FD staff&#46; By type of funding&#44; when the studies were supported by private sector there was a wider gap markedly unfavorable for women&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">Conclusions</span><p id="spar0090" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Our results show that there is underrepresentation of women in research leadership&#44; mainly those with private financing&#46; This study reinforces the idea that there is still a long way to go in this field&#46; More studies are necessary to identify the existing differences that allow the implementation of actions at the institutional and cultural level that promote gender equality in the field of clinical research&#46;</p></span>"
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        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Antecedentes y objetivo</span><p id="spar0095" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Los datos disponibles avalan las diferencias por g&#233;nero en el liderazgo de las investigaciones cl&#237;nicas &#40;IC&#41;&#46; Este estudio analiza en qu&#233; medida las mujeres lideran estas investigaciones&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">Materiales y m&#233;todos</span><p id="spar0100" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Estudio observacional retrospectivo en un hospital universitario terciario asociado a uno de los institutos de investigaci&#243;n sanitaria m&#225;s importantes de Espa&#241;a&#46; Analizamos los investigadores principales &#40;IP&#41; por g&#233;nero &#40;2001&#8211;2020&#41;&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Variable principal</span>&#58; proporci&#243;n de IC lideradas por mujeres durante el per&#237;odo de estudio&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Variables secundarias</span>&#58; diferencias de IP por g&#233;nero seg&#250;n el tipo de estudio&#58; ensayos cl&#237;nicos &#40;EC&#41; o estudios de no-intervenci&#243;n &#40;ENI&#41; y seg&#250;n la financiaci&#243;n&#46; Fuentes de datos&#58; registros del Comit&#233; de &#201;tica en Investigaci&#243;n con medicamentos &#40;CEIm&#41; y del Departamento de Recursos Humanos&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">Resultados</span><p id="spar0105" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Durante el estudio&#44; el CEIm aprob&#243; 8&#46;466 protocolos&#59; el 52&#37; &#40;4&#46;408&#47;8&#46;466&#41; fueron EC y el resto&#44; ENI&#46; Las mujeres lideraron un 39&#44;7&#37; &#40;3&#46;360&#47;8&#46;466&#41; del total&#46; La brecha de g&#233;nero se observ&#243; principalmente en EC&#58; las mujeres fueron IP de un 31&#44;5&#37; de ellos &#40;1&#46;391&#47;4&#46;408&#41; y de un 48&#44;5&#37; &#40;1&#46;969&#47;4&#46;058&#41; de los ENI&#46; Ello a pesar de la tendencia creciente del n&#250;mero de facultativas&#46; Los estudios de financiaci&#243;n privada fueron m&#225;s com&#250;nmente liderados por hombres&#46;</p></span> <span id="abst0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">Conclusiones</span><p id="spar0110" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Nuestros resultados demuestran que existe una infrarrepresentaci&#243;n de las mujeres en puestos de liderazgo en la investigaci&#243;n&#44; principalmente en aquellos con financiaci&#243;n privada&#46; Este estudio refuerza la idea de que todav&#237;a queda un largo camino por recorrer en este campo&#46; Se necesitan m&#225;s estudios para la identificaci&#243;n de diferencias existentes que permitan implantar cambios a nivel institucional y cultural que promuevan la igualdad de g&#233;nero en el &#225;mbito de la investigaci&#243;n cl&#237;nica&#46;</p></span>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0035" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Differences in gender in research leadership according to funding source&#46; &#40;a&#41; Funded by Industry vs Foundations &#38; Scientific Societies&#46; &#40;b&#41; Unfunded vs Public Funding&#46;</p> <p id="spar0040" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Y axis&#58; ratio by gender &#40;&#37; of principal investigators&#47;total number of staff doctors by gender&#44; i&#46;e&#46; &#37; of female principal investigators&#47;female doctors and &#37; of male principal investigators&#47;male doctors&#41;&#46;</p> <p id="spar0045" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">X axis&#58; year&#46;</p>"
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          "en" => "<p id="spar0050" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Evolution in the total number of female and male staff doctors and females and males in the highest professional positions&#46;</p> <p id="spar0055" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Y axis&#58; ratio by gender &#40;4&#46;a&#41; &#37; of staff doctors by gender&#44; &#40;4&#46;b&#41; &#37; of department heads by gender&#46;</p> <p id="spar0060" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">X axis&#58; year&#46;</p>"
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">&#37; of PI to total PI by gender</th><th class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">FPI&#47;TPI&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">75&#46;9&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">29&#46;7&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">25&#46;6&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t\ttable-entry\n
                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">2004&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t  " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">571&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">2015&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">2019&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t ; entry_with_role_rowhead " align="left" valign="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\ttop\n
                  \t\t\t\t">2020&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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                  \t\t\t\t">736&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
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Article information
ISSN: 22548874
Original language: English
DOI:10.1016/j.rceng.2022.07.005
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